ABA 1 final Essays

ABA 1 final Essays ABA 1 final Paper ABA 1 final Paper Three levels of understanding in science 1) Description 2) Prediction 3)Control Description collection of facts about observed events that be quantified, classified and examined or possible relation with other known facts (hypothesis) Control Highest level of scientific understanidng from which funtional relations can be derived (change in dependent variable predicts independent variable without confouding variables determinism events do not just occur, but happen in a systematic way, all phenomena occur as result of other events empiricism scientific objective observation of phenomena of interest replication repetition of experiments to determine the reliability and usefulness of findings parsimony the simplest explanations must be ruled out before more complex explanations are considered philosophic doubt the continuous questioning of the truthfulness and validity of all scientific theory and knowledge experimental analysis vs. applied behavior analysis of behavior basic research vs. development of technology for improving behavior 7 characteristics of applied behavior analysis (Baer, Wolf Risley) 1) generality 2) effective 3)technological 4) applied 5) conceptual systems 6) analytic 7) behavioral Stimulus an energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells Operant Conditioning conditioning in which an operant response is brought under stimulus control by virtue of presenting reinforcement or punishment contingent upon the occurrence of the operant response Four Fold Contingency Table [image][image] positive reinforcement targeted response increases when stimulus is added to environment negative reinforcement behavior increases because stimulus is contigently removed from environment positive punishment behavior decreases when stimulus is contingently added to environment negative punishment behavior decreases because stimulus contingently removed from environment 3-term contingency basic unit of analysis in the analysis of operant behavior, antecedent- behavior- consequence habilitation degree to which a persons behavior repertoire maximizes short and long term reinforcers and minimizes short and long term punishers, asesses meaningfulness of behavior change behavioral cusp beahaviors that open a persons world to new opportunities, socially valid, generativeness Target Behavior Definitions accurate, complete, concise, inclusions, exclusions objective, clear, complete measurement the process of applying quantitative labels to observed properties of events using a standard set of rules measurable dimensions of behavior 1) Repeatability (countability) 2) temporal extent (every instance the behavior occurs in some amount of time) 3) temporal locus (every instance of behavior occurs at a certain point in time with respect to other events rate/frequency measurement ratio of (number of responses per unit of time) count per observation period, more meaningful than count alond celeration measure of how rates of responses change over time (accelaration/decelaration) duration measurement the amount of time in which a behavior occurs response latency measurement measure of the elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of a subsequent response interresponse time measurement the amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a response class (temporal locus) per-opportunity measurement response magnitude the force or intensity with which a response is emitted whole interval recording measurement the observation period is divided into a series of brief time intervals. At the end of each interval the observer records whether the behavior occured for the WHOLE interval partial interval recording the observer records if the behavior occured at any time during the interval momentary time sampling records whether the target behavior is occuring at the moment that each time interval ends permanent product measurement measuring a behavior after it has occured by measuring the effects it had on the environment measurement validity when the data produced are directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reasons for meauring it (Was a relevant dimension of the behavior that is the focus of the investigation measured directly and legitimately?) measurement accuracy the extent to which the quantitative label produced by measuring an event matches the true value of the thing measured measurement reliability the extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same value when brought into repeated contact with the same state of nature (consistancy) direct measurement the phenomenon that is the focus of the experiement is exactly the same as the phenomenon being measured (actually seeing target behavior) indirect measurement when phenomena measured is in some way different from target behavior of interest (using questionairre about behavior) interobserver agreement the degree to which two or ore independent observers report the same observed values after measuring the same events IOA for rate/frequency Higher number/lower number x 100 IOA for duration data (shorter duration/longer duration) x 100 IOA for time sampling level (in a data series) value on vertical axis around which a series of data points converge trend (in a data series) overall direction taken by data path (increasing, decreasing, zero trend) variablity (in a data series) frequency to which mulitiple measures of behavior yield different outcomes (if variability is high ther is little or no control over factors influencing behavior) construct a split-middle line of progress A line drawn through a series of graphed data points that shows the overall trend in the data; drawn through the intersections of the vertical and horizontal middles of each half of the charted data and then adjusted up or down so that half of all data points fall on or above and half fall on or below the line. (pg153 in book) construct an equal interval graph Identify behavior change in graphed data functional relationships in graphed data indepdendent variable the variable systematically manipulated by the researcher (in ABA sometimes called intervantion or treatment variable) dependent variable the variable measured in an experiment to see if it changes depending on the independent variable (in ABA measure of socially significant behavior) three elements of baseline logic 1) Prediction 2) Verification 3) Replication Reversal designs (repeated measures, at least A-B-A) should be used when: alternating treatments experimental design the rapid alternation of two or more distinct treatments while their effects on the target behavior are measured Alternating treatment designs are appropriate when: multiple baseline experiemental design an experimental design that begins with the concurrent measurement of two or more behaviors in a baseline condition, followed by the application of the treatment variable to one fot he behaviors while baseline contidions remain in effect for the other behaviors. After maximum change has been noted for the first behavior, the treatment variable is applied in sequential fashion to each of the other behaviors in the design. changing criterion experimental design an experimental design in which an initial baseline phase is followed by a series of treatment phases consisting of successive and gradually changing criteria for reinforcement or puishment. internal validity the extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in behavior are a function of the independent variable and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables. confounding variable an uncontrolled factor known or suspected to exert influence on the dependent variable treatment integrity (procedural validity) the extent to which the independent variable is applied exactly as planned and described and no other unplanned variables are administered inadvertantly along with the planned treatment Three ways of assessing social validity 1) social significance of target behavior 2) appropraiteness of procedures 3) social importance of results external validitiy the degree to which a studys findings have generality to other subjects, settings and/or behaviors positive reinforcement establishing operation a motivating operation that establishes the effectiveness of some stimulus, object or event as a reinfocer (food when hungry) unconditioned reinforcer a stimulus change that increases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of the organisms learning history with the stimulus (product of evolutionary development, primary or unlearned reinfocers) conditioned reinforcer a stimulus change that functions as a reinforcer because of prior pairing with one or more other reinfocers (learned reinforcer) stimulus preference assessment a variety of procedures used to determine the stimuli that a person prefers, the relative preference of those stimuli and their presumed value as reinforcers avoidance contingency (escape contingency) a contingency in which a response prevents or postpones the presentation of a stimulus continuous reinfocement reinforcement for each occurance of the target behavior intermitant reinfocement some, but not all, occurances of a behavior produce reinforcement fixed ratio schedule a fixed number of responses must occur before reinforcement produces break and run step pattern variable ratio schedule varying number of responses required for reinforcement no post reinforcement pause, consistant steady rate of responding fixed interval schedule reinforcement delivered for the first response emitted following the passage of a fixed duration of time since the last response was reinforced produces scalloped data (post reinforcement pause, increase in response rate as interval increases) variable interval schedule reinforcement provided for the first correct response following the elapse of variable surations of time occuring in random order produces slow to moderate consistant responding limited hold reinforcement is only available during a finite time following the elapse of an FI or VI interval, if there is no response reinforcement is withheld and a new interval begins DRL schedules differnetial reinforcement of low rates of responding- responses reinforced only when they are lower than criterion compound schedules combined elements of of continous reinforcement, the four intermittent schedules of reinforcement, differential reinforcement of various rates of responding and extinction matching law rate of responding typically is proportional to the rate of reinforcement received from each choice alternative punisher a stimulus change that immediately follows the occurance of a behavior and reduces the future frequency of that type of behavior conditions when punishment is more effective immediacy, intensity, schedule, reinforcement for the target behavior, reinforcement for alternative behaviors guidelines for using punishment effectively select effective and appropriate punishers use the least intensity of punishment that is effective experience the punishment personally deliver the punishment immediately deliver the punishment at the beginning of the response chain deliver the punishment unemotionally punish each instance of the behavior watch for possible side effects of punishment record, graph and evaluate daily data examples of positive punishment contingent excersize, overcorrection (resitutional, positive practice), contingent electric stimulation time-out a form of negative punishment- the contingent withdrawel of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcement or the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a specified time guidelines for using time-out effectively reinforcing and enriching time-in environment defining behaviors leading to time-out defining procedures for the duration of time-out defining exit criteria deciding on non-exclusion or exlusion time-out explaining time-out rules obtaining permission applying time-out consistantly evaluating effectiveness -considering other options legal and ethical time-out issues response cost loss of specific amount of reinforcement contingent upon inappropriate behavior and results in decreased future probability of that behavior guidelines for using response cost effectively determine immediacy of the fine, decide whether bonus respose cost is preferred option, ensure reinforcer reserve, recognize the potential for unplanned or unexpected outcomes, avoid overusing, keep good record on effects side-effects of negative punishment may increase aggression, avoidance responses, affect collateral reductions of desired behaviors, call attention to punished behavior, effects can be unpredictable

Primes and Princes

Primes and Princes Primes and Princes Primes and Princes By Mark Nichol This post lists and defines words deriving from the adjective primus, meaning â€Å"first† or â€Å"finest.† premier: first, or earliest; as a noun, a synonym for â€Å"prime minister† premier danseur/premià ¨re danseuse: the first male and female dancer, respectively, in a ballet company premiere: most commonly, a first performance or broadcast of a performing-arts production or the first day of an exhibition (and, rarely, the leading actress in a production); as a verb, pertains to appearing for the first time in a starring role, or the first performance of a performing-arts production prim: neat and trim, or prudish or stiffly formal (and occasionally a verb pertaining to dressing modestly or making a demure expression); prim is also sometimes an abbreviation for primary or primitive prima donna: the first female singer in an opera or a concert; by extension, based on the stereotypical arrogance of such performers, a person who is difficult to work with prima facie: apparent or self-evident (or, in legal usage, legally sufficient to establish a case or a fact); on first appearance primacy: the state of being first, or the office of a high-ranking priest called a primate primal: elemental, natural, or original; less often, first in importance primary: first in order of development or time, or importance or value, or basic, direct, or firsthand; also, relating to something initial or preparatory, or pertaining to a first division, or relating to a preliminary election, as well as derived from ores or not derivable from other phenomena (such as colors); as a noun, something first, dominant, or most proximate primate: any of various species, including humans, apes, monkeys, and related animals; also, the highest-ranking priest in a given area primatologist: one who studies primates primavera: served with fresh vegetables (said of a dish, as in â€Å"pasta primavera†) prime: as a noun, the first hour of the day, the best or most active period or stage, the earliest stage, the best or leading individual or part, the first part of the day, a symbol resembling an apostrophe used for various designations (including units of length, angular measure, or time), or a truncation of â€Å"prime number† or â€Å"prime rate†; as an adjective, best or first, or original (also various mathematical senses); as a verb, apply, load, prepare, stimulate, or supply primer: a short introductory piece of writing, such as an informative article or a reading-instruction book; also, a device used to ignite explosives, a molecule necessary for formation of another molecule, or an initial coating, such as for painting a surface primeval: ancient, basic, or first created, formed, or existing primigravida: one that or who is pregnant for the first time primipara: one that has borne a first offspring or only one offspring primiparous: having a first or only one offspring primitive: original, or earliest or least evolved or in an early stage of development, elemental or natural, or naive or self-taught primo: the first or leading part in an ensemble; as an adverb, in the first place; as an adjective, slang synonym for excellent primogenitor: ancestor or forefather primogeniture: exclusive right of the eldest son to inherit all, or being the firstborn primordial: see primeval primp: dress up (perhaps an extension of prim) primrose: any of various species of plants and their flowers primus: in the Scottish Episcopal Church, the leading bishop; also, the first word of the Latin phrase primus inter pares, meaning â€Å"first among equals† prince: a male member of a ruling family (especially a son of the ruler), a king or other male ruler, a nobleman, or, by extension, one of high rank or standing princeling: a minor prince princess: a female member of a ruling family (especially a daughter of the ruler), a queen or other female ruler, a noblewoman, or, by extension, one of high rank or standing principal: as a noun, a leading person, such as the chief administrator of a school, or something that is most important, or the original amount of money owed; as an adjectival, most important principality: the territory of a prince, or the authority, office, or state of a prince; in plural form, one of various hierarchical categories of angels principle: an assumption, law, or principle considered fundamental, or an explanatory fact or law; a code or rule of conduct, the quality of devotion to principles, or a quality in general; an original source; or an ingredient with a characteristic quality Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Words for Facial Expressions50 Latin Phrases You Should KnowHow to Style Legislative Terms

Employability related psychometric test Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Employability related psychometric test - Essay Example The problem is that the congress passes a reform that they have very little information on and what they have previously not thought about therefore creating very expensive standards in the market and at the same time the standards make very little difference globally. The best illustration to this scenario is the happenings in 1970 while adopting the auto emission standards (Heidi, 2013). Absence of government regulation on markets will give room to better achievement of safety objectives, productivity and health but limited to the use of psychometric tests. Its absence will also give way to better and more technology, greater rates of employment and improved drugs to take care of the sick in hospitals and homes. In a free market approach without government regulations, there are more advantages like great deal of freedom to individuals when it comes to the process of decision-making. There is also efficiency in allocation of resources to various uses. The achievement of the efficie ncy is mostly through the price system. Many know that changes in prices direct buyers and sellers behaviors since they act as signals to them (Heidi, 2013). Directly affecting the employability, government regulation halts risk taking and innovation and interferes with production therefore resulting to decline in employment. This for example has to do with government regulation costs where people or businesses in the market lack enough money for investing in taking risks with new technology and ideas. This denies a company the chance to expand their market and hire more workers. Government regulation on employability over regulates through setting standards for each aspect of... This essay starts off with talking about technology and globalization, which has brought about the use of psychometric tests while recruiting employees. Just recently, software came up relieving the employer the duties of recruiting and hiring his or her employees manually. For organizations using this phenomenal, all they need is update what they want on the internet and those seeking jobs and meeting the qualifications highlighted by the employer, the computer automatically selects the person for short listing. The essay follows one of the main points with information about pressure mounts on to the congress for example to pass the reform law fearing that it may not get reelection leaving many unemployed youths stranded with their papers in the name of â€Å"Psychometric tests†. This is where the media comes in with a negative contribution by focusing only on the bad side of the problem rather than concentrating on the best possible solutions of fixing the problem. Then the essay discusses its problems.The problem is that the congress passes a reform that they have very little information on and what they have previously not thought about therefore creating very expensive standards in the market and at the same time the standards make very little difference globally. The essay concludes with a valuavle point, telling us tgat for an employer to get a matching employee, he or she needs not to put up an interview to get the best, internet does all that work giving the employee to key in details and submit the curriculum vitae online.

Video games Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Video games - Essay Example Video games can include profanity, criminal behavior, drug use, sexual themes, and graphic violence. Under U.S. law video games containing profanity, criminal behavior, drug use, sexual themes, and graphic violence are marked under the game rating label as MA, along with a V for violence and other appropriate warning labels. Specific games, like Grand Theft Auto, Doom, EverQuest, Need for Speed, and other popular titles promote the adverse behavior mentioned above. All of these titles are rated MA. Despite the mature rating children, teenagers, and adults make these titles best sellers. This can lead to the conclusion that video games including profanity, criminal behavior, drug use, sexual themes, and graphic violence are preferred by the public. The first example of video violence influencing real violence is the Columbine Massacre. On 20 April 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold arrived at Columbine High School, outside of Denver (Larkin, 1). Armed with an elaborate plan, bombs, and guns, the two shooters entered the school. In forty-five minutes, Harris and Klebold killed twelve students and one teacher. Twenty-four more students were wounded. After the forty-five minute rampage, Harris and Klebold committed suicide (Larkin, 8). The Columbine Massacre was one of the bloodiest school shootings in U.S. history. Before the Columbine Massacre, Harris and Klebold both played an online game called Doom (Larkin, 129). Doom is a first person shooting game for the computer platform. Doom can also be played online against other gamers. Harris even wrote levels of Doom. Manipulating Doom characters into violent scenarios was one of Harris’ hobbies (Larking, 130). The two boys bonded while playing this violent game. Harris even invented a Doom level that resembled Columbine High School. Many were quick to blame the Doom game for the violent attack. The violent video game,

Prevention of Violence in American Society Assignment

Prevention of Violence in American Society - Assignment Example Chante seems to regret her decision. It is because she confessed to the jury that she tampered with the evidence and did not commit murder. It gets also seen that after she had pulled into her garage, she lowered the door and sat down and then began crying and apologizing to Biggs who was moaning. Therefore, even though she made a call to help herself, we see her crying and regretting her decisions and apologizing to Biggs. She also blabbed, â€Å"Lord, I’m sorry, what do I do?† (MSNBC 2). Thus, it is evident that she regretted her decisions. First, once she hit the man, she could call 911 and ask for help from the police or any ambulance in order to save. Biggs could have survived because as she drove into her garage he continued to lose some blood; hence, making it more difficult to save his life. Alternatively, she could have driven to a nearby fire station, hospital or police station instead of driving towards her garage where she could not find any help. Therefore, the only step that Chante could have taken in that situation involves the police or other parties like health officers and not involving her friends who have no idea on handling the case. In this case, she could have saved Biggs’s life and get pardon on the jury for trying to save the Biggs’s life that got lost due to excess bleeding. The today’s technology could have changed the situation. The presence of CCTV in town makes it easier to monitor what went on in a certain event. The police could have easily identified the incident and follow her before she could do anything to tamper the evidence. The CCTV will also show the footage and determine how she reacted all that time after she hit the man and determine her real intentions in the event. Thus, the jury would have heard more evidence and change the verdict in the case, and the jury could have taken less time to determine the truth of the case.

Application Of Game Theory In Strategic Formulation Marketing Essay

Application Of Game Theory In Strategic Formulation Marketing Essay This particular article talks about the application of game theory in the business world. In todays highly competitive market it has become harder and more complicated to decide about the pricing strategies and budgeting of the advertisements. This article explains the concept of game strategy with various examples. Keywords: strategy, pay offs, prisoners dilemma. Introduction Game theory, a branch of  applied mathematics  that is used in the  social sciences, most notably in  economics, biology, engineering, political science,  international relations,  computer science, and  philosophy attempts to mathematically capture behavior in strategic situations or  games, in which an individuals success in making choices depends on the choices of others. While initially developed to analyze competitions in which one individual does better at anothers expense (zero sum games), it has been expanded to treat a wide class of interactions, which are classified according to several  criteria. Today game theory is widely used in the business for solving situations in which there are a number of players. Companies are using the science of Game Theory to help them make complicated strategic decisions in this highly competitive market with least possible risk. History of Modern Game Theory is more than 50 years old and has demonstrated an  ability to  generate the ideal strategic  choice in a variety of different situations, companies and industries. Principles of game theory are applied through the use of strategy games.   Game theory and its applications: A powerful tool for predicting outcomes of a group of interacting  firms where an action of a single  firm directly affects the payoff of other participating players. Enables  a company  to formulate their optimal strategy. Ideal for strategic situations where competitive or individual behaviors can be modeled.   For example:   Auctions (sealed project bids), Bargaining activities (union management negotiations), Product decisions (entry or exit markets), Principal-agent decisions (compensation negotiations, supplier incentives) and Supply chain design (capacity management, build vs. out source decisions). Multiple strategy games are analyses to  model different competitors, various payoffs  and potential strategies.   The objective of these games is to deliver A recommended set of strategic  decisions to guide competitive behavior to a desirable outcome, and; An analysis of how a series of possible strategic moves can predict various competitive outcomes.   Various types of games can be used and analysed based on the strategic situation, the number of players, the amount of  information available  and the timing constraints. Classification of game theory: There are basically three types of games Fully co- operative game: to explain this game we can take the example of two cyclists coming towards each other. it is in their best interest to avoid the collision and If they have to avoid the collision each of them has three strategies: move right move left maintain direction The strategy followed by one person in this case depends on the other person. As they both dont want a collision they will change their direction based on the opponents strategy. This type of game is called full co operative game. Zero sum non co operative game: to explain this case we can take the example of the retail outlets in one locality. All of them use different pricing strategy to attract customer. in this case if store is able to attract customers it is on the account of the other retail store. In this particular case a strategy followed by one player affects the other player always. In simple words the win of one person comes on the account of other persons loss. Mixed strategy game: this type of game explains the situation where the interests of both the player are interdependent. But they are partly opposed and partly coincident. This kind of strategy is followed mostly in the case of union management feuds. In the case of union and the management their benefits are interrelated. At the same time they have conflicting interests as well. Other classification: game theory has been divided into following categories: Static games: this basically deals with anticipating rivals move. These kind of games involve pricing strategy, prisoners dilemma, the concept of dominant strategy, fixing up of advertisement budget etc. Dynamic games: deals with the concept of perfect and sub perfect games. Prisoners dilemma: Below given diagram depicts the prisoner dilemma. Figure 3: Prisoners dilemma Prisoners dilemma is a beautiful concept of game theory that explains various complications that firms face while taking the decision regarding fixing the price or on deciding on the budget for the advertisement. The evidence available with police is not sufficient enough to convict these criminals to convict. Though they are supposed to get 20 years of imprisonment if the crime is proved, they will get only one year of imprisonment if the crime is not proved. if they apply the best strategy they both can avoid the conviction. The strategies that they can follow are: A confesses B remains silent: A gets an imprisonment of 5 years and B gets an imprisonment of 20 years. B confesses A remains silent: B gets an imprisonment of 5 years and A of 20 years. Both of them confess: both get an imprisonment of 5 years. Both remain silent: both get an imprisonment of 1 year. The dilemma here is that they dont know about each others strategy and they end up confessing the crime as both of them want to avoid the 20 year of imprisonment. But if they know about the strategy of the opponent they can decide about their strategy and can get best equilibrium possible that is one year for both of them. The same theory applies for many firms in the corporate world and they end up choosing the wrong strategy because of the opponent or the apprehensions in their mind. The Concept of Dominant Strategy: Dominant strategy is the strategy followed by any player that will supersede all the strategies followed by the opponent. Eliminating Dominant Strategy: It will in the best of interests of both the rivals to eliminate the dominant strategy. One beautiful example of this is the OPEC. Nash Equilibrium: A Nash equilibrium is a combination of strategies such that no individual player can deviate unilaterally from his or her to improve his pay offs. Few examples of game theory in the practical corporate world: Price wars: this can be explained by the following example: imagine there are two pizza providers in the city and they have different pricing policies namely- high, low and medium. There are two restaurants in a small town, pizza hut and dominos. They are in competition with each other for customers. They have three price slabs: high (H), medium (M) or low (L). The customer base is 1,000 of which 300 only ever buy at Dominos and 300 only buy at Pizza hut. The other 400 are price-sensitive and always buy the cheaper pizza and choose at random if they charge the same price. Both providers make a margin of  £12 per pizza if they charge high prices,  £10 per pizza if they charge medium prices, and  £5 for low prices. Both Dominos and Pizza hut cannot guess what the other player has chosen before they choose themselves. We can calculate profits by multiplying the number of customers with the margin per customer. For example, if dominos charges a medium price and Pizza hut a high price, Dominos will sell to his 300 loyal customers and the 400 price sensitive customers at a margin of  £10 each, giving him pay-offs of  £7,000. Pizza hut only sells to his 300 loyal customers, but at a margin of  £12 per pizza, giving him p rofits of  £3,600. Figure 2: pricing war between two suppliers PgIn this case three equilibrium arises one of 6/6 , 5/5 other one of 2.5/2.5. the noble picture for both the firms is 6/6 but becausee of the price wars between them none of them are able to extract ad No ad Ad wars: No ad $5m colgate $5,m $5.5m, $2m Ad $2m $5.5m $2.5m $2.5m Figure 3: advertising war between P G and Colgate This particular situation is of the two brands of toothpastes in which both of them follow different ad strategies. The decision of going for an ad and not going for an ad depends upon the opponent. They have four possible strategies: Both of them go for ad None of them go for ad P G goes for ad but colgate does not go for ad Colgate goes for ad but P G not. In two cases the equilibrium exists one for 5,5, and the other for 2.5, 2.5. the firms can make more money without going for any ad but as both the firms want to capture the non loyal market they go for ads and finally end up by lower margins. The dilemma here is that if one firm does not go for the ad and the other goes, then it will lose money. So guessing rivals move becomes very important here. Assumptions: Players and rational and they select strategies based on their interest. The market is equally divided in the players. Other factors are constant. Shortcomings of Game Theory: Game theory has many short comings as well and that needs to be considered. Assumes the players are rational and they play in their self-interest.  This might not be the case all the time. Assumes players act strategically and consider the competitive responses of their actions. But every manager does not think within a strategic context.   The concept of Game Theory is most effective when managers understand the expected outcomes of the strategies they are following and the strategy that their competitors will follow.   To be little precise most of the companies often do not have enough knowledge of their own payoffs let alone those of their  competition. Despite  its shortcomings, a properly constructed game can perceptibly reduce business risk, can produce valuable competitive insights, improve internal alignment  around decisions  and maximize strategic utility. According to the  The Economist  magazine Managers have much to learn from game theory provided they use it to clarify their thinking, not as a substitute for business experience. Conclusion: Game theory is a beautiful concept of applied mathematics. Though it has got shortcomings and its assumptions might not be applicable in all the cases it can help firms and industries in finding the appropriate strategies. Based on the pay offs, number of players and other strategic situations game theory can be helpful in developing the optimum strategies for the firms. .

Looking Back at Adolescence Essay -- Adolescent Behavior

Adolescence is a part of growing up between leaving the childish ways behind and slowly preparing more mature roles as an adult. This is a very confusing part of growing up because this is a time were we are trying to find our identity, creating our long term goals, and making decisions that may affect our lives forever. This can also be characterized as a part where we are trying to fit in a society which we feel we belong because we share the same experiences, thoughts and feelings. Also in this time, some are experimenting on things that come their way. Some of these things lead them to complicated situations. Still some are engaging into smoking, drinking and worst drugs that fatally affect their academic responsibilities. We adolescents grow in a very different setting than the generation before us. We are greatly exposed to technology that teaches us many things. If you open your personal computer at home and start browsing, pornography is just one click away. Too much technology kills us. Everything we might need is already spoon feed to us. I never mean that tech...

Inidividualism in the Early Modern Period

â€Å"Individualism and the Early Modern Period† For much of the world, the Early Modern period (from about 1500-1700) was a revolutionary time, marked by political, scientific and literary transitions. Politically, nations began to resist outside rule and establish their own national languages. Scientifically, the idea of a heliocentric universe (rather than a geocentric one) began to gain favor as Polish astronomer Nicolas Copernicus challenged tradition and church doctrine. In Europe, the invention of printing brought about a literary explosion.Books and texts could be mass-produced, making them much more affordable. Suddenly, one did not have to be of a certain socioeconomic status to have access to books. Writers saw the incredible potential of printing and ran with it, incorporating newly-available vernacular languages into their writing. The printing press opened up a world of seemingly endless possibility. The Early Modern period was marked by a resistance to (and some times rejection of) the status quo. Traditions were challenged, questioned, and sometimes abandoned.It was this heady atmosphere that gave rise to individualism. Individualism The American Heritage Dictionary defines individualism as â€Å"a social theory advocating the liberty, rights, or independent action of the individual. † The Early Modern period represents a shift in emphasis from the group dynamic (most notably the church) to the worth of the individual person. The thoughts, desires, goals and value of the individual gained significantly in importance, and one of the areas in which this shift is most readily apparent is in the world of literature.Niccolo Machiavelli was not necessarily revered as a writer during his lifetime, but from a literary standpoint, he was definitely a man of his time, and he illustrates this in his 1513 work, The Prince. Machiavelli and The Prince Machiavelli grew up during the peaceful Italian Renaissance, as Florence was becoming one of the leading cities in the areas of art and philosophy rather than placing an emphasis on military might and political savvy. Consequently, when King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, the Florentines offered little resistance.Machiavelli, who became an employee of the Florentine Republic in 1498, helped his fellow citizens form a militia to avoid a similar defeat. It didn’t help; Spain invaded in 1512, and the Florentines again failed to offer much resistance. Machiavelli began writing his book, The Prince, the year after the Spanish invasion. The book, which is still reviled in some circles, is a treatment of the use of power to create, control, and protect a principality. It illustrates Machiavelli’s belief that Florence needed a strong ruler to avoid any more humiliating defeats.The Prince and Individualism The author’s approach to individualism is quite straightforward. In The Prince, Machiavelli writes of the need for a ruler who is unafraid to use his powe r to advance his own causes. The ruler, according to Machiavelli, was to be cruel when necessary, deceitful when warranted, and willing to use terror to keep people in line (including his own). The author uses historical examples to illustrate his belief that a ruler establishes his strength by first establishing ironclad control over his own people — by force, if necessary. Had Moses, Cyrus, Theseus and Romulus been unarmed,† he writes, â€Å"they would not have had their institutions respected by the people for very long. † (Machiavelli, p. 1505) Machiavelli’s view on individualism is hard and fast; the individual – that is, the prince – comes first, above all others. Machiavelli also uses tone to great effect in The Prince. The author did not seem to consider his book to be a piece of literature. Rather, he intended for it to be a how-to guide for an effective ruler.His formal tone is apparent right away in his opening â€Å"Dedicatory Le tter,† in which he states his qualifications for writing such a treatise (Machiavelli knew Pope Alexander VI, King Louis XII, and Girolamo Savonarola among others, and considered himself eminently qualified to speak to the proper uses of power): â€Å"I have not found among my possessions anything I cherish more or value so much as my knowledge of the accomplishments of great men, which I learned through long experience in contemporary affairs and continuous study of antiquity. (p. 1503) Here, too, does Machiavelli’s approach to individualism show through; he is telling the new prince that his thoughts and ideas matter, and that they should be taken seriously if not heeded outright. Machiavelli vs. Other Early Individualist Authors Although Machiavelli probably would not be considered on the same literary plane as William Shakespeare or Petrarch, it is instructive to compare their differing approaches to individualism.Shakespeare, though known primarily as a playwright , was also the author or more than 150 sonnets. In them, Shakespeare approaches individualism in a much different way than Machiavelli, focusing on the importance of emotion. His â€Å"Sonnets† focuses on love, sexual desire, and finally, heartbreak. Petrarch’s â€Å"Canonziere† also places emphasis on the feelings of the individual. Canonziere† is a love poem in which the narrator sings praises of the love of his life, Laura, lamenting her death, and holds out hope for a reunion after he himself passes away. Machiavelli’s view on individualism is starkly different from Shakespeare, Petrarch, and other individualistic authors of his day, but in its own way, it is just as representative of the times. What can The Prince offer us?While few current world leaders would want to be referred to as Machiavellian (a term now used to describe ruthless, unscrupulous behavior), many leaders have followed some of the teachings of The Prince, whether knowingly or not. Even our own leaders seem to heed Machiavelli’s advice on promise keeping – the idea that it is acceptable to break a promise if keeping it places one at a disadvantage. Nearly five hundred years after The Prince was published, its approach to individualism still resonates today.

Lord Of The Flies Description Essays - English-language Films, Films

Lord Of The Flies Description Essays - English-language Films, Films Lord Of The Flies Description Setting The story takes place on an island somewhere in the ocean. The island is described by the author as tropical and boat shaped. Along the coast there are sandy beaches followed by a variety of vegetation and creepers. There are also the orchards, which rise up to the treeless and rocky and rugged mountain ridge which extends out of the ocean. Judging from the predicament and dialogue in this story the date in which it takes place is probably the mid 1900's during World War II. The mood created in this story is very complex and rapidly changing. It changes from that of a scary, recessive mood to a light, and cheery one. The way in which the story is written the mood can change literally from chapter to chapter. In the beginning it starts out light and happy and as the novel progresses and the boys start to battle, it starts to become dark and savage. Characters Jack is red-headed and thin he is also introduced as the leader of the boys' choir. To his dismay he loses the election for leader and he becomes the head hunter and is also in charge of maintaining the signal fire. As the story progresses he and his hunters begin to slack-off and abandon their duties in caring for the fire. In the end Jack and his hunters leave Ralph and start their own tribe on the rocky side of the island. Ralph is a tall, blond and is one of the oldest boys on the island. In the beginning of the story he is pictured as the leader of the boys when he blows the conch shell to call the first assembly. During the course of the story he tries to maintain the structure of their civilization and is continually forced to compete with Jack for approval from the boys. Piggy is a fat, asthmatic boy with bad vision. Throughout the story his weaknesses are preyed upon by the other boys much like that of the pigs on the island, thus the name. But despite his appearance, Ralph begins to depend upon Piggy for intellectual and spiritual guidance. Do to his vision, Piggy had unusually thick glasses, which was a benefit to the others on the island, and aided in the lighting of the signal fire and in the roasting of the pigs. Simon was a skinny, silent boy with black hair. He was neither liked nor hated and was abnormally silent throughout the story. The way he is portrayed in the story it is as if he were always contemplating life and his situation on the island. Aside from thinking, Simon also does the necessary chores and obeys all commands from his superiors. Exposition The story starts with a large group of boys crawl on to the beach of a tropical island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Their plane was been shot down, and World War II has begun to take place. The boys figure that civilization, as they know it, may no longer exist. Ralph is elected as the leader of the group and Jack decides to be the hunter and provide food for the group. The boys explore the island. They find that it is hard to believe that they're really on their own but their adventuring proves their suspicion. While adventuring Jack's first try at slaying a wild boar fails. Rising Action Another assembly is had and they talk about the need for hunters. One of the smaller boys, says he fears a horrid beast that he saw in the vast jungle. The fear of the beast, of the dark, and of what is unknown about the island begins to affect the boys' ways of thinking. Ralph makes an executive decision and convinces everyone that they need a signal fire to aid in their being rescued. Starting a fire is impossible until they use Piggy's glasses, they are so thick they act as a magnifying glass, igniting the tinder. To Ralph's dismay the boys begin to abandon the fire to play, finding it hard work keeping the fire going. Their fears of the terrifying beast grow worse when the twins, Sam and Eric, see the beast once again. This is

Lizzie Borden essays

Lizzie Borden essays The Lizzie Borden case has mystified and fascinated those interested in crime forover on hundred years. Very few cases in American history have attracted as much attention as the hatchet murders of Andrew J. Borden and his wife, Abby Borden. The bloodiness of the acts in an otherwise respectable late nineteenth century domestic setting is startling. Along with the gruesome nature of the crimes is the unexpected character of the accused, not a hatchet-wielding maniac, but a church-going, Sunday-school-teaching, respectable, spinster-daughter, charged with parricide, the murder of parents, a crime worthy of Classical Greek tragedy. This is a murder case in which the accused is found not guilty for the violent and bloody murders of two people. There were the unusual circumstances considering that it was an era of swift justice, of vast newspaper coverage, evidence that was almost entirely circumstantial, passionately divided public opinion as to the guilt or innocence of the accused, in competent prosecution, and acquittal. Not much is described of Lizzie Andrew Borden's childhood. On March 1, 1851, Emma Lenora Borden was born to Andrew and Sarah Borden, and on July 19, 1860, Lizzie had arrived. While Lizzie was at the young age of two, Sarah died of uterine congestion. In 1865, Andrew Borden wed Abby Durfee-a short, shy, obese woman who had been a spinster until the age of 36. Abby's family were not as well off as the Bordens. Lizzie suffered from psychomotor epilepsy, a strange seizure of the temporal lobe that has one distinct symptom: a "black-out" in which the patients carry out their actions in a dream state, aware of every action without knowing what they are doing. Lizzie Borden seemed to have two entirely different personalities: the good daughter (a member of the Congressional Church, and a brilliant (conversationalist), and the bad daughter (deeply resentful of the patriarchy). These two personalities could be explained by t...

Economic concepts assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economic concepts - Assignment Example It is easy to identify, recognize and account for the explicit cost because these costs are documented in the company’s statement. Additionally, physical objects and money based transactions are usually involved in explicit costs (Arnold, 2008). Implicit cost: Implicit costs are also known as implied costs, economic costs, or notational costs. It is directly opposite to the explicit cost. Implicit costs are not actually exposed or accounted as costs. Implicit costs are commonly explained as opportunity costs or the loss of an opportunity in a specified time or condition. Implicit costs are usually related with the intangibles assets and often cannot be traced or documented. These costs include: waste of potential opportunities, wastage of time, and profit wastage. Implicit costs give up the potential paybacks and agreements in a certain transaction of business. Just place, an implicit cost is the loss of a potential profits or assets that did not come about (Gartner, 2009). QU ESTION # 2 U shape cost curve: It is a representation of how the average cost for manufacturing a single unit changes over with the passage of time. The average cost of manufacturing per unit is high in the beginning and decreases as overall production increases. It is because of the fact that the same fixed cost is shared by more units or product. However, if the marginal cost of producing one more unit increases the overall cost again starts to increase because of the diminishing returns. Hence, when it is plotted on a chart, the cost curve seems like the letter U and for this reason is known as U shaped cost curve (Leamer, 2009). Long run cost curve: The long run cost curve is also called cost function in the microeconomic theory. It relates the cost of production to the amount of production and shows the implications of the long run decisions and proceedings on the cost of production of the company. The long run cost curve is the combination of several short run average cost cur ves and is generally U shaped because of the law of diminishing returns (Mankiw, 2009). Average cost curve: The average cost or unit cost is identified by dividing the total cost of production to total number of units produced in the company. An average cost can vary with passage of time with the increase or decrease in the cost of production. The average cost curve is also U shaped because of the fixed cost being shared by increasing products and at the same time marginal cost increasing because of the diminishing returns (Wessels, 2000). QUESTION # 3 Law of diminishing return: This concept of economics stating that, as the quantity of new input (workers, materials, etc.) increases, the marginal product of an added input at same position will be less than the marginal product of the preceding input. For example, consider a plant that uses manual workers to manufacture its items for consumption. If every other factors of production stay constant, at one stage each added worker will give less output then the preceding worker. When this stage is confronted then each extra worker will give less and less returns. If new workers are continuously added, the factory will in the end turn out to be so crowded that added workers in point of fact reduce the competence of the other workers, lessening the production of the plant. Another general example of law of diminishing returns is described as follow: If the population of the city increased then per capita income is decreased. And

Global Warming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Global Warming - Essay Example The solution is through the concerted efforts of various nations to help each other deal with this environmental trouble in one accord. There are international treaties or agreements that have been made by various nations to help lessen and remedy the damage done by global warming to the environment. Two international and multilateral agreements, the Montreal Protocol of 1987 and Kyoto Protocol of 1998, pay much attention to the damaging effect of world activities to the atmosphere. As cited by Morissette (1989): Its formulation was a response to a growing international consensus on the need to protect stratospheric ozone from depletion by CFCs. The Montreal Protocol is a landmark agreement in that it is the first international treaty for mitigating a global atmospheric problem before serious environmental impacts have been conclusively detected. Upon the agreement of the various countries that participated in the formation and agreement to the Montreal Protocol, the battle against global warming further developed as time went by, and with new concerns. This eventually led to a new agreement known as the Kyoto Protocol.   The  Kyoto Protocol of 1998  is an international treaty deliberated to communicate nations collectively to decrease  global warming,  and to deal with the effects of temperature increases that are inevitable after more than a century of heavy industrialization. Manne and Richels (1998) exposited that this was â€Å"to reduce their aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions by at least 5 percent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.† (p.2). The nations that approve of the Kyoto Protocol concur to decrease emissions of six greenhouse gases that increase the problems of global warming. These nations are also permitted to utilize emissions trading to reach their obligations if they maintain or increase their greenhouse gas emissions. All of these activities